Monday, February 13, 2012

Chapter 13 Copyright and Fair Use

here are the news about the copyright problem

Some More Bad News For Copyright-Enforcer Righthaven

reference
http://paidcontent.org/article/419-some-more-bad-news-for-copyright-enforcer-righthaven/

Chapter 12 Knowledge Management

Knowledge management (KM) comprises a range of strategies and practices used in an organization to identify, create, represent, distribute, and enable adoption of insights and experiences. Such insights and experiences comprise knowledge, either embodied in individuals or embedded in organizations as processes or practices.

An established discipline since 1991 (see Nonaka 1991), KM includes courses taught in the fields of business administration, information systems, management, and library and information sciences (Alavi & Leidner 1999). More recently, other fields have started contributing to KM research; these include information and media, computer science, public health, and public policy.

Many large companies and non-profit organizations have resources dedicated to internal KM efforts, often as a part of their business strategy, information technology, or human resource management departments (Addicott, McGivern & Ferlie 2006). Several consulting companies also exist that provide strategy and advice regarding KM to these organizations.

Knowledge management efforts typically focus on organizational objectives such as improved performance, competitive advantage, innovation, the sharing of lessons learned, integration and continuous improvement of the organization. KM efforts overlap with organizational learning, and may be distinguished from that by a greater focus on the management of knowledge as a strategic asset and a focus on encouraging the sharing of knowledge.

Knowledge Management System

Knowledge Management System (KM System) refers to a (generally generated via or through to an IT based program/department or section) system for managing knowledge in organizations for supporting creation, capture, storage and dissemination of information. It can comprise a part (neither necessary nor sufficient) of a Knowledge Management initiative.

The idea of a KM system is to enable employees to have ready access to the organization's documented base of facts, sources of information, and solutions. For example a typical claim justifying the creation of a KM system might run something like this: an engineer could know the metallurgical composition of an alloy that reduces sound in gear systems. Sharing this information organization wide can lead to more effective engine design and it could also lead to ideas for new or improved equipment.

Knowledge Management framework Ref: School Of management Studies, NIT Calicut

A KM system could be any of the following:

Document based i.e. any technology that permits creation/management/sharing of formatted documents such as Lotus Notes, SharePoint, web, distributed databases etc.
Ontology/Taxonomy based: these are similar to document technologies in the sense that a system of terminologies (i.e. ontology) are used to summarize the document e.g. Author, Subj, Organization etc. as in DAML & other XML based ontologies
Based on AI technologies which use a customized representation scheme to represent the problem domain.
Provide network maps of the organization showing the flow of communication between entities and individuals
Increasingly social computing tools are being deployed to provide a more organic approach to creation of a KM system.

KMS systems deal with information (although Knowledge Management as a discipline may extend beyond the information centric aspect of any system) so they are a class of information system and may build on, or utilize other information sources. Distinguishing features of a KMS can include:

Purpose: a KMS will have an explicit Knowledge Management objective of some type such as collaboration, sharing good practice or the like.
Context: One perspective on KMS would see knowledge is information that is meaningfully organized, accumulated and embedded in a context of creation and application.
Processes: KMS are developed to support and enhance knowledge-intensive processes, tasks or projects of e.g., creation, construction, identification, capturing, acquisition, selection, valuation, organization, linking, structuring, formalization, visualization, transfer, distribution, retention, maintenance, refinement, revision, evolution, accessing, retrieval and last but not least the application of knowledge, also called the knowledge life cycle.
Participants: Users can play the roles of active, involved participants in knowledge networks and communities fostered by KMS, although this is not necessarily the case. KMS designs are held to reflect that knowledge is developed collectively and that the “distribution” of knowledge leads to its continuous change, reconstruction and application in different contexts, by different participants with differing backgrounds and experiences.
Instruments: KMS support KM instruments, e.g., the capture, creation and sharing of the codifiable aspects of experience, the creation of corporate knowledge directories, taxonomies or ontologies, expertise locators, skill management systems, collaborative filtering and handling of interests used to connect people, the creation and fostering of communities or knowledge networks.

A KMS offers integrated services to deploy KM instruments for networks of participants, i.e. active knowledge workers, in knowledge-intensive business processes along the entire knowledge life cycle. KMS can be used for a wide range of cooperative, collaborative, adhocracy and hierarchy communities, virtual organizations, societies and other virtual networks, to manage media contents; activities, interactions and work-flows purposes; projects; works, networks, departments, privileges, roles, participants and other active users in order to extract and generate new knowledge and to enhance, leverage and transfer in new outcomes of knowledge providing new services using new formats and interfaces and different communication channels.

The term KMS can be associated to Open Source Software, and Open Standards, Open Protocols and Open Knowledge licenses, initiatives and policies.

Benefits & Issues of knowledge management

Sharing of valuable organizational information throughout organizational hierarchy.
Can avoid re-inventing the wheel, reducing redundant work.
May reduce training time for new employees
Retention of Intellectual Property after the employee leaves if such knowledge can be codified.
time management

Knowledge Sharing remains a challenging issue for knowledge management, and while there is no clear agreement barriers may include time issues for knowledge works, the level of trust, lack of effective support technologies and culture

Example of KM

Our cases database has over 100 examples of organizations that have achieved significant benefits through knowledge management. Here are just a few examples:

BP - by introducing virtual teamworking using videconferencing have speeded up the solution of critical operation problems
Hoffman La Roche - through its Right First Time programme has reduced the cost and time to achieve regulatory approvals for new drugs.
Dow Chemical - by focusing on the active management of its patent portfolio have generated over $125 million in revenues from licensing and other ways of exploiting their intangible assets.
Texas Instruments - by sharing best practice between its semiconductor fabrication plants saved the equivalent of investing in a new plant.
Skandia Assurance - by developing new measures of intellectual capital and goaling their managers on increasing its value have grown revenues much faster than their industry average.
Hewlett-Packard - by sharing expertise already in the company, but not known to their development teams, now bring new products to market much faster than before.

Reference:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management
http://www.skyrme.com/insights/22km.htm#eg

Monday, February 6, 2012

Chapter 11: Information System

Information System

An information system (IS) - or application landscape - is any combination of Information Technology and people's activities that support operations, management, and decision making. In a very broad sense, the term information system is frequently used to refer to the interaction between people, processes, data, and technology. In this sense, the term is used to refer not only to the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) an organization uses, but also to the way in which people interact with this technology in support of business processes.

Some make a clear distinction between information systems, computer systems, and business processes. Information systems typically include an ICT component but are not purely concerned with ICT, focusing in instead on the end use of information technology. Information systems are also different from business processes. Information systems help to control the performance of business processes.

Alter argues for an information system as a special type of work system. A work system is a system in which humans and/or machines perform work using resources to produce specific products and/or services for customers. An information system is a work system whose activities are devoted to processing (capturing, transmitting, storing, retrieving, manipulating and displaying) information.

As such, information systems inter-relate with data systems on the one hand and activity systems on the other. An information system is a form of communication system in which data represent and are processed as a form of social memory. An information system can also be considered a semi-formal language which supports human decition making and action.

Information systems are the primary focus of study for theInformation Systems disciplin and for Organisational Informatic.

Components

It consists of computers, instructions, stored facts, people and procedures.

ISs can be categorized in four parts:

Example of Information System in a successful business

Walmart

Reference:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_system
http://www.scribd.com/doc/11796980/Information-Systems-at-Walmart-Inc

Monday, January 23, 2012

Chapter 9 Evaluation

Example of a good website:

These website are what I considered good because they are always up to date and the source of information can be trusted.

Key Elements of an Effective Website

1. Appearance
2. Content
3. Functionality
4. Website Usability
5. Search Engine Optimization

Appearance

A site must be visually appealing, polished and professional. Remember, it's reflecting your company, your products and your services. Your website may be the first, and only, impression a potential customer receives of your company.

Content

Along with style, your site must have substance. Remember that your audience is looking for information that will help them make a decision, so it should be informative and relevant. Use this opportunity to increase visitor confidence in your company's knowledge and competence.

Functionality

Every component of your site should work quickly and correctly. Broken or poorly constructed components will only leave your visitors frustrated and disillusioned with your company. Across the spectrum, everything should work as expected, including hyperlinks, contact forms, site search, event registration, and so on.

Usability

A critical, but often overlooked component of a successful website is its degree of usability. Your site must be easy to read, navigate, and understand.

Search Engine Optimized (SEO)

There are hundreds of rules and guidelines for effective search engine optimization, and this isn't the place to cover them all. For starters, follow these simple rules:

Include plenty of written content in HTML format. Don't use Flash, JavaScript or image-only objects for your navigational items.
Use your important keywords frequently and appropriately in your copy.
Minimize the use of tables and use Cascading Style Sheets for layout and positioning; keep your HTML code clutter-free.
Leverage your links -- make them descriptive and use your keywords in the link text

Evaluation of Web documents
1. Accuracy of Web Documents

Who wrote the page and can you contact him or her?
What is the purpose of the document and why was it produced?
Is this person qualified to write this document?

Accuracy

Make sure author provides e-mail or a contact address/phone number.
Know the distinction between author and Webmaster.

2. Authority of Web Documents

Who published the document and is it separate from the "Webmaster?"
Check the domain of the document, what institution publishes this document?
Does the publisher list his or her qualifications?

Authority

What credentials are listed for the authors)?
Where is the document published? Check URL domain.

3. Objectivity of Web Documents

What goals/objectives does this page meet?
How detailed is the information?
What opinions (if any) are expressed by the author?

Objectivity

Determine if page is a mask for advertising; if so information might be biased.
View any Web page as you would an infommercial on television. Ask yourself why was this written and for whom?

4. Currency of Web Documents

When was it produced?
When was it updated'
How up-to-date are the links (if any)?

Currency

How many dead links are on the page?
Are the links current or updated regularly?
Is the information on the page outdated?

5. Coverage of the Web Documents

Are the links (if any) evaluated and do they complement the documents' theme?
Is it all images or a balance of text and images?
Is the information presented cited correctly?

Coverage

If page requires special software to view the information, how much are you missing if you don't have the software?
Is it free or is there a fee, to obtain the information?
Is there an option for text only, or frames, or a suggested browser for better viewing?

Putting it all together

Accuracy. If your page lists the author and institution that published the page and provides a way of contacting him/her and . . .
Authority. If your page lists the author credentials and its domain is preferred (.edu, .gov, .org, or .net), and, . .
Objectivity. If your page provides accurate information with limited advertising and it is objective in presenting the information, and . . .
Currency. If your page is current and updated regularly (as stated on the page) and the links (if any) are also up-to-date, and . . .
Coverage. If you can view the information properly--not limited to fees, browser technology, or software requirement, then . . .
You may have a Web page that could be of value to your research!

Example of bias information:

Global warming

Information bias

is a type of cognitive bias, and involves e.g. distorted evaluation of information. Information bias occurs due to people's curiosity and confusion of goals when trying to choose a course of action.

Over-evaluation of information

An example of information bias is believing that the more information that can be acquired to make a decision, the better, even if that extra information is irrelevant for the decision.

Examples of information bias are prevalent in medical diagnosis. Subjects in experiments concerning medical diagnostic problems show an information bias in which they seek information that is unnecessary in deciding the course of treatment.

Globoma experiment

In an experiment, subjects considered this diagnostic problem involving fictitious diseases:

A female patient is presenting symptoms and a history which both suggest a diagnosis of globoma, with about 80% probability. If it isn't globoma, it's either popitis or flapemia. Each disease has its own treatment which is ineffective against the other two diseases. A test called the ET scan would certainly yield a positive result if the patient had popitis, and a negative result if she has flapemia. If the patient has globoma, a positive and negative result are equally likely. If the ET scan was the only test you could do, should you do it? Why or why not?

Many subjects answered that they would conduct the ET scan even if it were costly, and even if it were the only test that could be done. However, the test in question does not affect the course of action as to what treatment should be done. Because the probability of globoma is so high with a probability of 80%, the patient would be treated for globoma no matter what the test says. Globoma is the most probable disease before or after the ET scan.

In this example, we can calculate the value of the ET scan. Out of 100 patients, a total of 80 people will have globoma regardless of whether the ET scan is positive or negative. Since it is equally likely for a patient with globoma to have a positive or negative ET scan result, 40 people will have a positive ET scan and 40 people will have a negative ET scan, which totals to 80 people having globoma. This means that a total of 20 people will have either popitis or flapemia regardless of the result of the ET scan. The number of patients with globoma will always be greater than the number of patients with popitis or flapemia in either case of a positive or negative ET scan so the ET scan is useless in determining what disease to treat. The ET scan will indicate that globoma should be treated regardless of the result.

reference:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_bias_%28psychology%29

http://www.library.cornell.edu/okuref/research/webcrit.html

http://www.spritzweb.com/good-website-characteristics.html

Monday, October 17, 2011

Chapter 6 Report and Citation

Report Struction

In business, the information provided in reports needs to be easy to find, and written in such a way that the client can understand it. This is one reason why reports are divided into sections clearly labelled with headings and sub-headings. Technical information which would clutter the body of the report is placed in the appendix.

The structure of a report and the purpose and contents of each section is shown below.

TITLE PAGE

report title
your name
submission date

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

overview of subject matter
methods of analysis
findings
recommendations

TABLE OF CONTENTS

list of numbered sections in report and their page numbers

INTRODUCTION

terms of reference
outline of report’s structure

BODY

headings and sub-headings which reflect the contents of each section. Includes information on method of data collection (if applicable), the findings of the report and discussion of findings in light of theory

CONCLUSION

states the major inferences that can be drawn from the discussion
makes recommendations

REFERENCE LIST

list of reference material consulted during research for report

APPENDIX

information that supports your analysis but is not essential to its explanation

Citations

Some General Rules :

The entire work	(Smith, 2004)
A specific page	(Smith, 2004, p. 39)
If the author's name is included in the text of the sentence where the citation takes place	Smith (2004, p. 39) claims that... Use only the date or date and page number.
An online article with no page numbers.	(Myers, 2000, para. 5) (Beutler, 2000, Conclusion section, para. 1) Use abbreviation "para." followed by the paragraph number you are citing. When possible, specify a section of the article.
Citing multiple authors	See Authors, below.

http://www.library.mun.ca/guides/howto/apa.php
http://unilearning.uow.edu.au/report/4b.html

Chapter 8 Search Engine

How do search engines work?

The good news about the Internet and its most visible component, the World Wide Web, is that there are hundreds of millions of pages available, waiting to present information on an amazing variety of topics. The bad news about the Internet is that there are hundreds of millions of pages available, most of them titled according to the whim of their author, almost all of them sitting on servers with cryptic names. When you need to know about a particular subject, how do you know which pages to read? If you're like most people, you visit an Internet search engine.

Internet search engines are special sites on the Web that are designed to help people find information stored on other sites. There are differences in the ways various search engines work, but they all perform three basic tasks:

They search the Internet -- or select pieces of the Internet -- based on important words.
They keep an index of the words they find, and where they find them.
They allow users to look for words or combinations of words found in that index.

Early search engines held an index of a few hundred thousand pages and documents, and received maybe one or two thousand inquiries each day. Today, a top search engine will index hundreds of millions of pages, and respond to tens of millions of queries per day. In this article, we'll tell you how these major tasks are performed, and how Internet search engines put the pieces together in order to let you find the information you need on the Web.

They are three types of search engines:

Crawler-based search engines
Human-powered directories or Search engine directory
Meta or hybrid search engines

Crawler-based search engines

Crawler-based search engines, such as Google (http://www.google.com), create their listings automatically. They "crawl" or "spider" the web, then people search through what they have found. If web pages are changed, crawler-based search engines eventually find these changes, and that can affect how those pages are listed. Page titles, body copy and other elements all play a role.

The life span of a typical web query normally lasts less than half a second, yet involves a number of different steps that must be completed before results can be delivered to a person seeking information. The following graphic (Figure 1) illustrates this life span (from http://www.google.com/corporate/tech.html):


3. The search results are returned to the user in a fraction of a second.			1. The web server sends the query to the index servers. The content inside the index servers is similar to the index in the back of a book - it tells which pages contain the words that match the query.

	2. The query travels to the doc servers, which actually retrieve the stored documents. Snippets are generated to describe each search result.

Human-powered directories

A human-powered directory, such as the Open Directory Project (http://www.dmoz.org/about.html) depends on humans for its listings. (Yahoo!, which used to be a directory, now gets its information from the use of crawlers.) A directory gets its information from submissions, which include a short description to the directory for the entire site, or from editors who write one for sites they review. A search looks for matches only in the descriptions submitted. Changing web pages, therefore, has no effect on how they are listed. Techniques that are useful for improving a listing with a search engine have nothing to do with improving a listing in a directory. The only exception is that a good site, with good content, might be more likely to get reviewed for free than a poor site.

Hybrid search engines

Today, it is extremely common for crawler-type and human-powered results to be combined when conducting a search. Usually, a hybrid search engine will favor one type of listings over another. For example, MSN Search (http://www.imagine-msn.com/search/tour/moreprecise.aspx) is more likely to present human-powered listings from LookSmart (http://search.looksmart.com/). However, it also presents crawler-based results, especially for more obscure queries.

5 Example of Search Engines on the internet:

Reference

http://computer.howstuffworks.com/internet/basics/search-engine2.htm

http://edtech.boisestate.edu/bschroeder/publicizing/three_types.htm

Monday, September 26, 2011

Chapter 5 Book Database

Example :
http://www.iblist.com/